Carlos Aquino Rodriguez*
As one of the countries with the longest histories
of Chinese immigration and with the largest Chinese community in Latin America,
Chinese studies in Peru focused mainly in the history and the role of Chinese
immigrants in Peru. But as China economic presence grows and as it became in
the year 2011 the biggest export market for Peru now the focus is in the
economic relationship and the influence China has in the economy. On the other
hand as the establishment in Peru of several Confucius Institutes in some
Universities shows, there is a strong interest in learning Chinese language and
Chinese culture, to understand better the economic giant and from people who
want to learn those tools to do business with China.
In the present article we present a brief introduction
to the relationship between Peru and China, then we make a history of Chinese
studies in Peru, in the third part a presentation of some actual research on
China is given, in the fourth part some recent initiatives on China studies is
presented and in the Conclusions we will try to foresee in which directions
these studies will develop.
I.
Introduction.-
Peru and China relations are one of the oldest in
Latin America. The first
contact between these two countries began in 1849, when Chinese immigrants
began coming to Peru. From that year up to 1872 around 100,000 of them came to
Peru, mostly from the southern part of China, in present day Guangdong
province. At that time Peru needed labor force to work mainly in the sugar cane
and cotton plantations along its coast line (and later in the extraction of
guano and the construction of the Central Railroad of Peru). There was scarcity
of labor because the laborers working in the plantations, mainly black people
brought before as slaves by the Spaniards from the XVI century, were given
freedom in 1845 (abolition of slavery) and most of them left the fields for the
cities.
Peru became the first country in Latin
America to receive Chinese immigration in a large scale. China was opened by
force by England in 1840 after the Opium War and some of its people began
leaving the country.
But Chinese immigration to Peru came to a
sudden halt for an incident in one of the ships carrying them to Peru. In 1872
the Peruvian ship “Maria Luz”, during a stop in the port of Yokohama, Japan,
suffered the desertion of one Chinese on board. He escaped throwing himself
into the sea, where he was rescued by the crew of a British warship in the
port. He complained of mistreatment in the Peruvian ship. In fact, in the long
journey from China to Peru, conditions of the travel were so harsh that
sometimes more than one third of the human cargo died in the way[1].
After the British captain of the warship
complained to Japanese authorities, they ordered the Peruvian ship to return the
laborers to China. After that the Qing Imperial Government forbade Chinese
immigration to Peru.
Because of this incident China and Peru began
negotiations to have official contacts, and in 1874 diplomatic links were
established.
After a hiatus, on November 2th 1971
diplomatic relations between China and Peru were established again. That way Peru
became one of the first countries in Latin America to establish diplomatic
relationship with the now People`s Republic of China.
From 1990s onward again more Chinese have
immigrated to Peru. Peru now is home to the largest Chinese community in Latin
America.
During the 1990s economic relations began to
increase. In 1993 the amount of Peruvian exports to China was only of 140
million dollars, but in 2003 they reached 676 million dollars. In the same
period imports from China increased from 90 million dollars to 646 million
dollars.
Peru became in 1998 a member of the Asia
Pacific Economic Cooperation forum, APEC, joining China and other Asian
economies in this important organization and making possible closer relations
between the two countries. In 2009 a Free Trade Area agreement was signed
between them and entered into effect the following year. In 2011 China became
the largest trade partner of Peru. Exports to China reached 6,961 million
dollars and imports were 6,321 million dollars that year. In the year 2012
trade with China keep increasing (even if Peru exports to the world did not
increase) and exports to that country amounted to 7,692 million dollars with
imports valued at 7,795 million dollars. That year 17% of the total exports of
Peru went to China.
Political relations between Peru and China
are quite strong and there have been several visits at the highest levels
between them. In April 1991 Alberto Fujimori became the first Peruvian
President to visit China and he went a total of 4 times during his ten year
government. In October 1995 Li Peng, China Prime Minister at that time, did a
state visit to Peru, becoming the first Chinese chief of state to visit Peru.
In June 2005 Alejandro Toledo, President of
Peru paid a state visit to China.
In the year 2008 when Peru was host to APEC
Leaders Meeting, President Hu Jintao visited Peru.
Peru´s President Ollanta Humala went to China
on April 2013 for a state visit where he was received by President Xi Jinping,
becoming one of the first foreign dignitaries to have met the new Chinese
leader.
Besides these visits, Peru and China Leaders
have met several times during the APEC Leaders Meetings in several
countries.
II.
The history of
China Studies in Peru.-
The most studied subject on China studies in the
country is about Chinese immigration to Peru. As is well know Peru was one of the
first countries in Latin America to receive immigrants from China in a large
scale and now has the largest Chinese community in the region.
It is said that between 5% and 10% of Peru
population is of Chinese origin but many of them have no Chinese surnames and
no Chinese physical characteristics. What happened is that with time there have
been a lot of intermarriage of Chinese with Peruvians and so the surname and
the Chinese physical characteristics have been lost. It is interesting to
notice that the Chinese laborers who came to Peru during the XIX century were
all men, and no Chinese women came during most of that period when immigration to
Peru began. As a result Chinese immigrants have to get married to local women.
Also it should be noted that because of the harsh
conditions in the fields where Chinese laborers had to work at the beginning,
some of them fled and went to places far away to avoid being prosecuted. Some
of them changed their surnames to avoid been caught by authorities. And additionally,
as some of them settled in small towns, when they registered to the local
authorities, and especially when they had their children, at the moment of registering
their surnames local authorities often misspelled their names and surnames and
in the documents, certificates of birth, and of marriage, their names and
surnames become different from the original ones[2].
One of the first and most
prolific authors on the theme of Chinese immigration to Peru is Humberto
Rodriguez Pastor. In fact he is a pioneer in the study of the subject. His books includes “Hijos del Celeste
Imperio en el Perú (1850 - 1900). Migración, agricultura, mentalidad y
explotación” (Sons of the Celestial Empire in Peru
(1850-1900). Migration, agriculture, mentality and exploitation),
published in 1989 by the Instituto de Apoyo Agrario. He has also published
“Herederos del Dragón” (Heirs of the Dragon) in 2000 by the Fondo Editorial del
Congreso del Perú.
Fernando De Trazegnies Granda published in 1994 “En el país de las
colinas de arena: reflexiones sobre la inmigración china en el Perú del S. XIX
desde la perspectiva del derecho” (In the country of the hills of sand: reflections on Chinese
immigration in the nineteenth century in Peru from the perspective of law), by the Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú. There is a
translation into Chinese language of this book[3].
This is one of the most interesting books on the history of Chinese immigration
to Peru and tells all the vicissitudes that they have to face to came and to
live in Peru.
Also Isabelle
Lausent-Herrera has written several books and continues doing research in the
theme of Chinese immigration to Peru. She
published in 1992 the book “La cristianización de los chinos en el Perú:
integración, sumisión y resistencia” (The Christianization of the Chinese in
Peru: integration, submission and resistance) by the Institut Français d’Etudes
Andines. She recently published an interesting article about the Chinese
arriving to Peru in the last two decades and their influence in the Chinatown in
Lima, capital of Peru[4].
Chinese immigrants influence in Peru is well known
in several subjects and for example one strong is in Peruvian food. In this
country Chinese restaurants are called CHIFA. This word is said to be a
degeneration of the Chinese word “chifan” (吃饭). In Peru we eat a
lot of “chaofan” ”( 炒饭) and here it is
called “chaufa” or “arroz chaufa”, “arroz” meaning rice in Spanish. But in Peru
chaofan is different from the fried rice or chaofan eaten in China because
Peruvian Chinese restaurants or CHIFA put everything in it when they prepare “arroz
chaufa”, not only fried egg, but several kind of vegetables, chicken, and even other
kinds of meat. CHIFA restaurants are numerous in Peru and popular because the food
there is cheap, delicious and CHIFA are open to business most of the times.
Chaofan is also one of the most popular dishes eaten in Peru.
There are books that describe the influence of
Chinese food in Peruvian cuisine, like the use of the soy sauce, in Peru called
“siyau” (豉油), or the use of the wok (镬); the versatile round-bottomed cooking
vessel originating in the Canton region of China. In Peru some Chinese
words are pronounced the Cantonese way because most of the Chinese immigrants
who came to Peru in the 19th century came from that region, or Guangzhou
(广州).
Another consequence of the Chinese presence in Peru is that
rice is the main staple food in Peru. Peruvians eat rice at least twice per
day, at lunch and dinner. It is the country in South America that consumes more
rice than others in the region. Being Peru the country that gave to the world the
potato and corn this is a very interesting phenomenon.
A well know book on the Chinese food in Peru or CHIFA is the
one by Mariella Balbi, a journalist, titled “Los chifas en el Peru –Historia y
recetas-” (“The CHIFA in Peru - History and receipts-“) published in 1999 by
the Universidad San Martin de Porres[5].
.
III.
Current research on
China Studies and institutions/research centers on China Studies.-
The “Centro de Estudios Orientales” or Center of
Oriental Studies[6]
of the Pontificia Universidad Catolica del Peru is the oldest Center that have
done some teaching or published about Asia and China. Created in 1987 it began
its activities the following year. It regularly gave lessons on Chinese
language until the year 2009, when a Instituto Confucio (Confucius Institute) began
activities at the same University and now Chinese language lessons are given
there. Currently the Centro de Estudios Orientales teach the following courses
about China: Introduction to Chinese Literature, Culture History of China, and
Introduction to Chinese Religions[7].
One of the professors teaching there is Guillermo
Dañino Ribatto, who gives the Seminar on Introduction to Chinese Literature. He
is one of the most prolific authors about Chinese culture and literature in
Peru. He wrote for example the book “Esculpiendo Dragones: Antologia de la
Literatura China” (Carving Dragons:
Anthology of Chinese Literature) published by the Centro de Estudios Orientales
in 1996, where he introduced to the Peruvian public many Chinese poems and
translated them into Spanish. Other of his books is “Manantial de Vino. Poemas
of Li Tai Po” (Fountain of wine: Poems by Li Tai Po), published in 1998 also by
the Centro de Estudios Orientales, a book where he presented and translated the
poems of the great Chinese poet Li Bai (Li Po). Roberto Dañino spent many years
in China and probably is the Peruvian scholar who knows best Chinese culture
and has the most knowledge of the Chinese language[8].
There are Confucius Institutes created in the past
years with the support of the Chinese governments. At present there are four,
two in Lima, the capital, one in the north and other in the south of Peru. In
Lima one is in the Pontificia Universidad Catolica del Peru[9], and the other is
in the Universidad Ricardo Palma[10]. In the north of Peru in
the city of Piura there is a Confucius Institute in the Universidad de Piura[11] created in the year 2007.
In the south of Peru, in the city of Arequipa, there is another Confucius
Institute in the Universidad Catolica de Santa Maria[12].
These institutes mainly teach the Chinese language and
also organize events to promote Chinese culture.
This is a very interesting phenomenon because it
means that in Peru there are four Confucius Institutes, the largest number in
Latin America. It shows an increasing interest in China and Chinese language in
Peru.
In the year 2012 the Universidad Alas Peruanas and
the Fundacion de Amistad Peruano China signed an agreement to create an
Instituto de Estudios Chinos (Institute of China Studies)[13] but so far there have
been no news about this initiative.
Recently, at the end of year 2012, it has been
created a Centro de Estudios Peru China (Center of Studies Peru China) in the
Universidad del Pacifico in Lima.
IV.
Themes on China
Studies by Peruvian scholars and professors and an introduction about my own
research.-
In the last years as China economic presence in
Peru and in the Latin America region increases the focus of studies on China is
mainly in the economic aspect of the China presence in Peru and in the region.
For example in the year 2009 two authors, Cynthia Sanborn
and Victor Torres published a book with the title “La economia china y las
industrias extractivas: desafios para el Peru” (The Chinese Economy
and the Extractive Industries: Challenges for Peru), by the Universidad del
Pacifico and Cooperaccion[14]. The book is mainly about
Chinese investment in the mining sector in Peru.
In November of the year 2011 two authors, Ruben
Tang and Luis Garcia-Corrochano presented a book titled “Politica Exterior
Peruana: Las Relaciones entre el Peru y China”[15] (Peruvian Foreign Policy:
Relations between Peru and China), published by the Instituto de Estudios
Internacionales y el Instituto Confucio of the Pontificia Universidad Catolica
del Peru. The book gives a review of the
relations between Peru and China even from before the establishment of
diplomatic relations in 1874.
In the second half of the year 2012 the Universidad
del Pacifico published a special number of its magazine “Apuntes” dedicated to
relations between China and Latin America. The magazine Apuntes No. 71 has as
title: “Relaciones Comerciales y Politicas entre China y Latinoamerica”[16] (Trade and Political
Relations between China and Latin America). The articles are from authors from
others countries in the America region.
In October of the year 2012 a book compiled by
Richard Chuhue, Li Jing Na, and Antonio Coello, with the title “La Inmigracion
China al Peru: Arquelogia, Historia y Sociedad”[17] (The Chinese
Immigration to Peru: Archeology, History and Society) come to light. It is an
interesting book published by the Confucius Institute of the Universidad
Ricardo Palma and is 540 pages long because it put together the papers
presented in a Conference about the Chinese in Peru that took place one year
before. The book covers the presentations by nearly 30 scholars on a wide range
of fields, from the research of the life of a Chinese immigrant in the 19th
century, to the Chinese theater in Lima, and to the study of the consumption of
chaofan in Peru (a list of themes covered by the book can be seen in the link
to the index of the book in footnote 17 below).
Now regarding my own research, since coming back to
Peru in 1993 after doing postgraduate studies in Japan I have been dedicated to
teaching and writing about the economic development of China and of the East
Asian region. I have published many articles on those subjects and even books.
In the year 2000 I wrote a book titled “Introduccion a la Economia Asiatica” (Introduction
to the Asian Economy) published by Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos[18]. In this book several
chapters are dedicated to the analysis of the development of the Chinese
economy.
Regarding my articles, for example I have wrote in
the University magazine “Pensamiento Critico” No. 14 of the year 2010 about
relations between China and Japan, and in the “Pensamiento Critico” No. 15 of
year 2011 about China in the world economy and what it means for Peru[19]. Also I write in some newspapers and magazines
in Peru and abroad, and have contributed with some articles even in China, to
China Daily for example[20].
Also I give Conferences about Chinese economy as
the one I gave in September last year 2012 in the “Economist Association of
Lima”[21]. Besides I often give
interviews to several mass media in Peru and abroad about Asia and Chinese
economy[22].
In the Faculty of Economics of the Universidad
Nacional Mayor de San Marcos where I teach I have a “Seminar on Asian
Economies” where I talk about the economic development of China and other Asian
countries. As far as I know it is the only University in Peru where a subject like
this is being teached and this is already incorporated as part of the Syllabus
of the Economics Department.
In another aspect, it is interesting to notice that
the
Peruvian government has begun giving scholarships for studying in China.
CONCYTEC, the official institution for science and technology is offering
financing for studies of Master, Doctor Course, special training and Chinese
language in Chinese Universities[23].
One of my students has got one of these scholarships and is going to China in
September this year to do a Doctoral course in a University in Beijing on China
economy. Thanks to this in the future we will have Peruvians scholars on China
who have studied in China and can understand better the Chinese language.
Also it should be noticed that during the visit of
President Ollanta Humala in April this year to China he opened the Centro de Estudios
Peruanos (Center of Peruvian Studies) in the Normal University of Hebei[24],
the first of this type in China. It should be noticed that this is the
University that established a cooperation agreement with the Universidad
Ricardo Palma in Peru to set up a Confucius Institute in this University. So it
will be interesting to see in the future an exchange of academics between Peru
and China who want to study each other country situation.
Lastly we should mention that some Universities in Peru
are establishing cooperation agreements with Universities in China, as
mentioned in the case of the establishment of the Confucius Institutes in Peru,
but not only in this subject. For example the Universidad Nacional Mayor de San
Marcos had a cooperative agreement with the Beijing International Studies
University[25].
V.
Conclusions.-
As it has been seen in the last years the focus in
China studies in Peru is going in the direction of better understanding the
economic relationship of both countries. Studies on Chinese immigration for
sure will continue given the long history of that relationship and the impact
that they have in Peruvian life, from food to other fields.
But another change is happening with the strong
interest in Chinese language and Culture. Up to know there were very few people
who understood well for example the Chinese language, a vital element for doing
business with China or understanding better and doing better research on China.
With the setting up of several Confucius Institutes more people are learning
the Chinese language, and not only in these Confucius Institutes the language
is being teached but also in other new places[26]. So in the future it is
sure that new researchers with better knowledge of the language will come out.
Also as mentioned the Peruvian government, in
coordination with the Chinese government, is providing more scholarships for
students and researchers to go and study in China. Besides it should be
mentioned that little by little Chinese students seems to be coming to Peru to
study Spanish language and are also interested in the opportunity of doing
business in Peru. One advantage for them to coming here is that Chinese people
are welcomed by Peruvians because precisely the largest Chinese community here
and also because Peru economy has been growing very fast for the last years.
Without doubt all these efforts by researchers will
help understand better not only the economic relationship but will be a reason
to increase this more. A new branch of researchers with knowledge of the
language and with stints in China will without doubt also wide the subject of
research.
*Professor in the
Faculty of Economics at Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos (San Marcos
National University), Lima, Peru.
[1] Fernando de Trazegnies: “En el pais de las colinas de arenas” (in the
country of the sand hills), published by the Pontificia Universidad Catolica
del Peru, 1995. There
is a Chinese translation of the book, done in the year 1999 in Beijing.
[2] I have also seen by myself the misspelling
of names and surnames in the case of Japanese who settled in Peru. I am the
official translator of the Japanese language in Peru and one of my jobs is to
“correct” the misspelling of the names.
[3] Fernando De Trazegnies Granda was Minister of Foreign Affairs of Peru and during a visit to China in March of the year 2000, while he was Minister, he presented his book, translated into Chinese in Beijing University.See “DE TRAZEGNIES SE REUNIO CON VICEPRESIDENTE DE REP. POPULAR CHINA”
[4]
“The Chinatown in Peru and the Changing Peruvian Chinese community(ies)”
in Journal of Chinese Overseas, Volume 7, Issue 1, 2011, pages 69 to 113, http://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/docs/00/59/81/55/PDF/JCO_007_01_05-Lausent-Herrera.pdf
[5] See Web site of the University, in publications
year 1999, “Los Chifas en el Peru”. http://www.fcctp.usmp.edu.pe/facultad/libros-y-otras-publicaciones
[6] http://ceo.pucp.edu.pe/. I used to teach here a “Seminar on
East Asian Economies” from 1996 to 2009, but from the year 2011 I teach this
subject in Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos in the Faculty of
Economics.
[7] See the list of subjects being teached at the
Center of Oriental Studies. http://ceo.pucp.edu.pe/seminarios.htm
[9] The Confucius Institute here has a cooperative
agreement with the Shanghai International Studies University. http://confucio.pucp.edu.pe/
[11] The Confucius Institute here has a cooperative agreement
with the Beijing Normal University. http://www.confucio.udep.edu.pe/
[12] The Confucius Institute here has a cooperative agreement with the
Guangdong University of Foreign Studies. http://www.ucsm.edu.pe/
[13] According to the Facebook page of
the Fundacion de Amistad Peruano China. https://www.facebook.com/media/set/?set=a.371813849540460.97709.321181571270355&type=1
[15] The book was launched on occasion of the 40th
anniversary of the establishment of modern diplomatic relations between Peru
and China. https://www.facebook.com/notes/instituto-confucio-pucp/libro-pol%C3%ADtica-exterior-peruana-las-relaciones-entre-el-per%C3%BA-y-la-china-de-venta/277119585664297
[16] Of the articles in the magazine only one of
them refers to Peru, about the Free Trade Area agreement signed between Peru
and China. https://www.up.edu.pe/revista_apuntes/SitePages/tabla_contenido.aspx?idsec=Revista%20Apuntes%2071
[18] The whole book can be read in this
link http://economia.unmsm.edu.pe/Servicios/Publicaciones/Libros/Libro2.htm
[19] Article in the magazine Pensamiento Critico No.15, pages 7 to 22. “La economía
china en la coyuntura económica mundial y las implicancias para el Peru”, http://economia.unmsm.edu.pe/Organizacion/IIEc/Archivos/RevistasIIE/PC_15/PC15_Completa.pdf
[20] See for example my article: “China´s influence
grows in US´ ´backyard´ ”, China Daily, June 25, 2012 http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/opinion/2012-06/25/content_15520252.htm
[21] Conference “China and Asia in the
current economic situation” http://cel.org.pe/forocel/China%20y%20Asia%20en%20al%20actual%20coyuntura%20economica%20fORO%20CEL%206-09.pdf
[22] I should also mention that I
participated last march in the Fifht World Forum on China Studies in the city
of Shanghai, organized by the Shanghai Academy of Social Sciences and the
Shanghai Municipal Information Office. In this event I presented a paper about
relations between Peru and China. http://www.chinastudies.org.cn/english.htm
[23] See: “CONCURSO NACIONAL DE BECAS DE ESTUDIOS DE DOCTORADO, MAESTRÍA, PERFECCIONAMIENTO DE ESPECIALIDADES O APRENDIZAJE DEL IDIOMA CHINO EN UNIVERSIDADES DE LA REPÚBLICA POPULAR CHINA 2013 - 2014”, http://portal.concytec.gob.pe/index.php/fondecyt-becas-china-2013.html
[24] “Se establece primer centro de estudios peruanos en universidad
china”, see in the web site of the Chinese Embassy in Lima, Peru, http://www.embajadachina.org.pe/esp/xwss/t1029233.htm
[25] For a list of cooperative
agreements that Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos has see this link: http://www.unmsm.edu.pe/coop/contenidob1e4.html?pag1=6
[26] Just to mention one, for example in
the Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, in its Language Center, Chinese language
is being teached from the year 2012. http://ceidunmsm.com/idiomas/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=349&Itemid=145
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